P1: News

What is News?

L/O: To explore the nature and ownership of the news industry

5 questions:
Online, social and participatory news (The Observer/The Guardian)

Print newspapers (The Observer; Contemporary and Historical)

Media language, representations, industries audiences and contexts.

What is the purpose of News?

Inform

Educate

Entertain

Profit

Influence/persuade

News sources

TV - Trustworthy

Radio - Trustworthy

Social media - Relatively untrustworthy, depends on source

Podcasts - Relatively untrustworthy, depends on source

Newspapers 

Questions

Q1. 'News was not a spectator sport' - what does Stephens mean by this?

A1. That everyone just told each other interesting things that were going on and we all shared our own accounts of stories.

Q2. What development 150 years ago made it possible for people to make a business selling news? 

A2. The Steam Press

Q3. We can now access news anywhere, from our own ideas and opinions and even contribute ourselves. Stephens says this is 'mostly a wonderful thing'. Why? Do you agree?

A3. It's mostly a wonderful thing because while there a few bad apples who share fake news, we mostly get to share our own accounts of events that more closely align with others beliefs instead of those beliefs being very corporately based. I agree as I think allowing everyone to have a voice can allow readers to seek out different articles and come to their own conclusion on events.

Newspapers

Newspapers feared competition such as Television,  circulation peaked in 1950s, declined ever since, fears came true as circulation of Sunday papers is extremely low by 2010. 

Audiences in 1960s:
The Mirror - Working class Labour
The Daily Express - Working class conservative
The Times - Social elite
The Daily Telegraph - Middle class Conservative
The Guardian - Middle class Labour or Liberal

In the 2010s these audiences are more fragmented, with less loyalty based on situation. Online media serves this fragmentation better than traditional print newspapers because they can target a multitude of audiences.

In the 1960s, newspapers began to be defined by physical size. Upmarket were large broadsheet format, i.e Observer. Downmarket were tabloid, i.e The Sun. Broadsheet were dominated by an agenda, with little self promotion on the front page. Tabloid relied on their front covers to attract readers. The Times filled it's front page with classified advertising until 1966, front pages for the Observer had many more news stories on the front page with more formal language.

Colour supplements were launched in the early 1960s - these were designed to offer advertisers a nicer platform for their advertisements. 

Broadsheet and tabloid are still in common use to describe newspapers. The broadsheet press describe their tabloid as compact because they believe tabloid carries negative connotations of sensationalism and gutter journalism.

Tabloid:
Softer news agenda - e.g human interest stories, celebrities
Less formal language register
Pages dominated by headlines and images
Target a more downmarket audience
Offers news as entertainment

Broadsheet:
Harder news agenda - e.g politics, finance, international news
More formal language register
Pages dominated by copy
Target a more upmarket audience
Offers news as information

Categorisation

Tabloid:
The Mirror
The Sun
The Daily Star

Hybrid:
The Daily Mail
The Daily Express

Broadsheet:
The Observer
The Financial Times
The Times
The Guardian
The Independent
The Telegraph

Ownership

Ownership Models:
Media Barons - owned by wealthy individuals or proprietors e.g Rupert Murdoch
Trusts - a legal arrangement that transfers funds from the owner to a 'trustee' to manage and control the running of the paper e.g Scott Trust (GMG) The Guardian
Cross-Media converged conglomerates - global institutions that own numerous media outlets. These may be owned by Media Barons e.g DMG & Lord Rothermere

Newspapers are not PSB, they're commercial.

Over three quarters of the press is owned by a handful of billionares, Over half of the press is owned by two men, Lord Rothermere (27.3%) and Rupert Murdoch (24.9%).

Newspapers and their online publications have no legal obligation to provide an unbiased public information service.

There are ethical and moral codes of press conduct but the printed press is a self regulatory industry.

Market Shares

Mail - 39% - Owned by DMG Media Ltd
Sun, Times - 28% - Owned by News Corp
Star, Express, Mirror, People, Daily Record - 16% - Owned by Reach
Telegraph - 5% - Owned by Telegraph Group
Guardian, Observer - 2% - Owned by Guardian Media Group
Financial Times - 2% - Owned by Nikkei

Newspaper Funding & Regulation
L/O: To example the impact of newspaper funding and regulation on the printed press

Monday 4th April 2022

How does media ownership contribute to news bias?
Profit
Owner's opinions
Commercial advertising
Opinions of business partners/friends

Newspapers are not usually profitable, they are seen as a means of political and social influence and are often owned by rich individuals rather than conglomerates. They tend to specialise in newspaper publishing rather than a range of media.

The Guardian and Observer are owned by a trust set up in the 1930s to protect the editorial independence of the Guardian newspaper. These liberal values have meant support from the Guardian for both the Labour party and the Liberal Democrats, the newspaper trying to express a range of views from slightly right of centre to left wing. The Guardian media group bought the Observer after a disastrous period in which it had been used by it's new owner as a weapon in a vendetta against a business rival. This is an example of the sort of interference the Scott Trust was set up to protect against.

Political Bias of National Newspapers

The Guardian - Left Wing (Broadsheet)
The Mirror - Left Wing (Tabloid)
The Independent - Slightly Left Wing (Broadsheet)
The Times - Right Wing
The Telegraph - Right Wing
The Sun - Right Wing
The Daily Express - Right Wing
The Daily Mail - Right Wing

Newspaper editors will always insist in public that there is no interference from the owner in regards to stories. Rupert Murdoch expressed strong views about the European Union, but his newspapers took different positions in the Brexit referendum. Direct interference could destroy the credibility of the newspapers.

The owner will appoint the editor, so they have a lot of indirect power. One story tells of a journalist who was told to write a positive review of an album because it was seen on Rupert Murdoch's desk. British politicians routinely meet with Murdoch before elections, presumably to seek his support so they have more favourable coverage.

The former Prime Minister Tony Blair visited Murdoch before his election and received far more favourable coverage than his predecessor John Major, who did not "do a deal" with Murdoch.

The Leveson Inquiry into the press found that politicians of all parties had 'developed too close a relationship with the press in a way that has not been in the public interest', and that politicians' relationships with newspaper owners, managers and editors were not clear and open. 

How do newspapers make money?

Circulation

Advertising
Paywalls and Memberships

Events & Other Sales

Sponsored Content

1960s newspapers depended on circulation and advertising for revenue.

Tabloid newspapers had larger circulations but working class audiences that were less attractive to advertisers, so relied more on cover price; broadsheet newspapers had smaller circulations but attractive upmarket audiences and relied more on advertising.

Newspapers in the 2010s have a wider range of funding source.

Funding

Circulation - subscription or over the counter sales

Paywalls - paying to access online content e.g. The Times, the Sun has just discontinued this option as it reduces online readership

Membership - The Guardian/Observer are experimenting with this model for protecting free online content; they announced that they had reached 800,000 paying members worldwide in October 2017 and that the income from this now exceeded that from advertising.

Print and online advertising - print is traditionally much more lucrative than online advertising but has drastically reduced in recent years, though concerns over advertising being placed next to inappropriate content by Google and Facebook may boost print advertising. Online newspapers reach a global audience and can sell advertising to different national audiences.

Sponsored content - brands supplying content and/or paying to be connected to content - this blurs the boundaries between advertising and editorial that journalists prize but advertisers wish to blur.

Events - The Guardian/Observer frequently run courses, meetings and conferences.

Sales - The Guardian/Observer sell holidays and books, for example, linked to their review and travel sections. 

Q1. What does the term 'free press' mean?

That anyone must be allowed to set up a newspaper and newspapers must be allowed to publish whatever they want without interference from the government or authorities.

Q2. What did the press do to jeopardise freedom of the press that also lost them a lot credibility with the public?

They invaded the privacy of the public on multiple occassions.

Q3. What was the government response?

There was an inquiry called the Leveson Inquiry in which the press was exposed for unethical behaviour 

Q4. What self-regulatory body do most newspapers now use today?

The Independent Press Standards Organisation

Q5. What is the rival regulator called - who uses it?
Impress, it is used by a few local newspapers.

Libel and Online News

A different constraint on press freedom is the libel law. Journalists argue that Britain has particularly onerous libel laws - journalists have to prove that what they allege is true to win cases (unless they can demonstrate that the story is in the public interest). E.g. Jimmy Saville case in 1967

Online news is not regulated at all, unless online newspapers chose to sign up to a regulator. The issue of 'fake news' came to special prominence during and after the 2016 US Presidential election. A special counsel was appointed to investigate Russian interference in the election, which included very extensive use of false news reports on social media.

Facebook appointed its first content reviewers in 2017 to try to address this problem. This constitutes a retreat from the social media company's previous position that they were not media companies but IT companies offering a platform for other people's content, an extreme 'freedom of speech' position they hoped would absolve them from journalistic ethics or regulation.

Newspapers such as The Guardian/Observer try to offer a trusted brand online by applying the same ethics and journalistic practices as the print newspapers, and by actively moderating readers' comments to filter out appropriate comments. 

Newspaper Case Study

L/O: to investigate the Observer/Guardian publications

Monday 25th April

Media Language

The ability to analyse the use of Media Language elements to create connotations in the print and online Observer, including layout, typography, colour, image and language use. 

The generic conventions of 'broadsheet' or 'quality' print newspapers. (Not the conventions of newspapers as a media form - students should avoid simply naming the elements of front page design)

The ability to analyse how these conventions are used by the Observer in print and online to create a distinctive house style which reflects the Observer's messages and values. 

How the versions of the Observer use the advantages of print and online technology.

The ability to analyse the use of intertextuality in the Observer print and online, e.g in headlines. 

Representations

Why and how the Observer selects and constructs representations to reflect journalistic ethics and the liberal messages, values and beliefs of the newspaper

The ability to analyse the use of stereotypes and counter-stereotypes in the Observer and how far it counters historic inequalities in the representation of different social groups - e.g age, gender, race and ethnicity.

Themes, e.g politics, hard news, lifestyle, culture, sports, expressed in the representations.

Ideologies, e.g liberalism, internationalism, patriarchy/anti-sexism/anti-racism, expressed in the representations.

How representations are influenced by contexts such as current political debates and movements or social/cultural contexts such as consumerism, celebrity culture, multiculturalism, and changing attitudes to genders and sexualities; this applies to the contemporary and set historical Observer front pages.

Audience and Industries

Targeting audiences - the international audience for the Observer online, the upmarket audience for quality newspapers online, how different sections target different audiences. 

Technologies - reaching audiences via the UK/US/Australian websites, tweets, posts, alerts - link to concept of convergence.

Active/passive audience and uses and gratifications theory. How the online Observer encourages activity and or passivity and offers uses and gratifications.

Audience interpretations, e.g BTL comments after Opinion pieces,

The role, trust ownership and funding of the Observer, comparing the online newspaper's donation or subscription model with paywall newspapers. 

Self-regulation of newspapers by ISPO/IMPRESS (not the Observer) and the difficulties of regulating online news - issues such as misinformation, disinformation and invasion of privacy. 

House Style - The Observer

Masthead placed under advertisements

"May: I will fine greedy bosses who betray their workers" - Reflects the Observer's left wing attitudes

Woman looking empowered on the front cover which reflects left wing attitudes

Colour palette is very dull, suggesting broadsheet and professionalism

Front page focuses on politics, upmarket, broadsheet 

1. Who owns the Guardian/Observer? - The Scott Trust

2. What political stance do they have? - Left wing

3. How are they regulated? - ISPO/IMPRESS (Observer Self Regulates)

4. How do they make money? - Advertisements/circulation/donations

5. They don't have a PAYWALL for their online publications, instead they have a subscription/voluntary donation system - why do you think this is? - To ensure they have as many readers as possible, as their focus is news over profit.

Observer Target Audience Profile

Print Readers - Male/Female = 50/50, upmarket, live mostly in the London and the South, progressives.

Online Readers - Male/Female = 55/45, less upmarket than print, 1/3 are a younger audience than print, 1/3 PCs - 2/3 mobile.

Target Audience:

Age range - 15-34

Gender - Equally male/female on print, slightly more male on online

Where they live? - London and the south

Social class - ABC1

Political view - Left wing

Values - Progressive, open to new ideas and change

Interests - Food and drink, art and cultures

1. Define what 'convergence' means - The merging of different types of mass media

2. Explain how it applies to the Observer - The Observer merges newspapers and digital media such as videos on it's online version.

3. Explain how digital convergence helps the Observer appeal to a wider audience - Digital convergence helps to appeal to a wider audience, for example, an article could be read in an auditory form via text-to-speech or a podcast, making the article more accessible for the visually impaired. Videos could be used to make articles and their topics easier to understand. It also lets readers focus on a specific section (Sports, lifestyle, etc)

4. Explain how the newspaper and online versions are similar - Both have a masthead, both feature the same articles and images.

5. Explain how online newspapers have changed the relationship between audience and producer - Audiences can comment on online newspapers, starting discussion with others and given their opinions on topics such as politics. This can also lead to more direct criticism and feedback towards newspapers.

 

Criticism of conservative PM - Reflects Left Wing ideology

Media Language

L/O: to investigate how print and online news use media language to create meaning

Advantages of Online News: 

Accessible worldwide (Audience)

Edit and update articles instantly in case of errors or developments in reports (Industry)

Reduces production costs (Industry)

Comment on online news and share it (Audience)

Disadvantages of Online News: 

Reduces circulation reducing advertiser appeal (Industry)

Difficult to regulate comments (Audience)

Media Language Creates Connotations: 
Typography - Observer uses Serif
Layout - Masthead - Name of The Newspaper, Byline - Name of the author, Headline - Main story of the newspaper, Subhead - Other stories in the newspaper, Main Image, Minor Images  

Colour - All follow similar colour schemes, focus lies on the black and white Serif type face, with extra colour  

Images

Lexis

Codes and conventions of print and online versions

Headlines often criticise Conservatives, reflects their left wing attitudes. Lexis used connotes negative things, further reinforcing criticisms. 

Politically biased to the left

Main image is a woman, representing the progressive attitudes the newspaper holds.

Bright colour palette

Serif font for Masthead, connotes a higher quality of newspaper

'New Trump golf course provokes Fury' - Lexis use, 'Fury' reflects negative attitude towards the right's values, 'Trump' being a Republican President. 

'One million young Britons' - Connotes ideas of patriotism

Masthead placed under Skybox, placing prevalence on ads. 

Headlines criticise Conservatives and Celebrity culture

Historical Case Studies

L/O: To evaluate the impact of social, cultural, political and historic contexts on 1960s newspapers

1960s Issues

Vietnam War
Unions and strikes

Divorce was often not an option

Jackie Kennedy remarrying after the assassination of John F Kennedy

Cold War

Newspapers in the 60s

By the 1960s, Newspapers had competition from Television. Circulation of Newspapers had fallen to 25 million by 1965, representing 1.4 newspapers per household. Peak circulation in the 1950s was 2 per household. 

1960s Political Segmentation

Segmentation in the 60s represented clear class and political differences in society: Labour working class readers bought the Mirror, Conservative working class readers bought the Daily Express; the social elite read the Times, Conservative middle class readers read the Daily Telegraph, Labour or Liberal middle class readers read the Guardian. 

Society in the 2010s is far more fragmented, less sense of loyalty to political parties or identity based on class, this fragmentation may be better served by online media rather than traditional print newspapers, as online media can target a multitude of different audiences.

2010s Bias

Mirror - Labour

Daily Express - Conservative

The Times - Conservative

Daily Telegraph - Conservative

Guardian - Labour/Liberal Democrats

1960s Newspapers

Newspapers in the 60s were starting to be defined by their physical size. Upmarket newspapers were printed in the broadsheet format, whereas downmarket newspapers such as the Sun launched tabloid formats. Broadsheet newspapers were dominated by a news agenda, little self-promotion. Whereas Tabloid newspapers relied on front covers to attract readers. Front pages for the Observer have many more news stories on the front page with far less space dedicated to photography and promotion, far more formal language than today.  Increasing role of marketing newspapers was evident in the launching of colour supplements in the early 60s, designed to offer advertisers the opportunity to use high quality colour images. Printing in the main newspapers was monochrome and of poor quality compared to contemporary standards. 

Historic Contexts

• 'Lawyers will urge divorce by consent' - Example of social reform in 1960s, law commission that is staffed only by men pushing for a law that will grant more rights to women which therefore pushes towards greater gender equality.
• 'Wilson-Brown market clash' - Contentious relations with the EU, similar to today.
• 'So polite, this North Sea Spy Game',  'Yard suspects Blake used two-way radio', 'America accused of spy frame up' - Prevalence of spy stories due to the ongoing Cold War, reflects concerns of the general public during the 1960s. 
• 'Hopes rise for cease-fire in Vietnam', indirectly 'Police will appease marcher' - Reflects the rise of anti-war protest and the attitudes of a post-WW2 Britain.
• 'Jackie: we're very happy' - Focuses on the second marriage of Jackie Kennedy, JFK's wife. Reflects patriarchal context in which she is defined by her relationship with a man, article focuses on the man not her. 
• 'Unions postpone strike' - illustrates the high level of coverage of strikes in the 60s, reflecting greater union power in that decade. Barbara Castle is mentioned (the only female politician), as arguing for a move towards narrowing the gender pay gap, reflecting the patriarchal culture of the 60s and the limited attempts to create gender equality before the Equal Pay Act. 
• 'Briton shoots a gold' - Article mentions a Black Power protest at the Mexico Olympics, reflecting anti-racist movements of the 1960s; note the unselfconscious use of the term 'Negro'
• 'Stephen Pollock with Elizabeth Vambe, 21, a Rhodesian-born African, after their marriage yesterday' - Reflects contexts of white culture, 'mixed marriages' unusual enough to be newsworthy.  

News: Exam Practice

5 questions

35 marks

Section B

Covers both Online and Print newspapers, historical case studies and linked social media

Question Six

1 mark

Industry and Terminology

Examples:

• How is the Observer funded?
• Who owns the Observer?
• Who regulates the newspaper industry?
• Globalisation - When a newspaper operates on a world-wide scale
• Diversification
• Convergence

Question Seven

4 marks

Social media and online press (Industry)

Explanation which tests understanding of the newspaper industry. Include real examples from the Observer & other news industry knowledge.

Examples: 

• Online diversification - advantages etc.
• Use of social media
• Newspaper funding - print & online
• Hard vs Soft news - print & online
• Survival of newspapers

Question Eight

5 marks

Unseen extract short analysis

Contemporary print (Media Language & Contexts)

2 examples from the Extract

Representations are created by Media Language:

• Gender
• Ethnicity
• Age
• Disability
• Sexuality
• Social groups
• Normally under-represented
• Political parties

Examples: 

• Gender - Women represented, shown to be marching which suggests independence. Colours connote traditional representations of women which suggests that she is peaceful. 
• Ethnicity
• Age - Younger people, facial expressions suggests that they are both positive and serious. 
• Disability - No representation.
• Sexuality - No representation. 
• Social groups - Celebrity representations in skybox, brighter colour palette reflects the soft nature of celebrity news. 
• Normally under-represented
• Political parties - Prime Minister and Labour Leader Sir Kier Starmer mentioned, focuses on Starmer's criticism rather than the Prime Minister reflecting the Observer's left and centrist attitudes.

Question Nine

15 marks

Unseen extract long analysis

Contemporary print (Media Language & Contexts)

JUDGEMENT!

Full course of study (LIAR):
Media Language - Masthead, image, skybox etc

Industry - Newspapers

Audience - Intended audience

Representation - Historical contexts that influence representations of people in the 2010s.

Question Ten

10 marks

Historical case study

Representations and contexts

"Explain how social and cultural contexts influenced newspapers in the 1960s. Refer to stories from the front pages of the set newspapers you have studied to support your answer."

"Explain how historical contexts influence the representations in newspapers from the 1960s."